Ron Paul 0wnz the Federal Reserve
Ron Paul Interview on FOX Business Channel 02/28/2008
Friday, February 29, 2008
Saturday, February 9, 2008
Poland-2007 Article IV Consultation
Poland-2007 Article IV Consultation
Preliminary Conclusions
January 21, 2008
Poland is enjoying strong and well-balanced growth, with only limited pressures on core inflation and the current account deficit so far. However, the expansion is facing emerging resource constraints, in particular labor shortages. Sustaining robust GDP growth and external competitiveness over the medium term will require meeting a dual challenge of containing demand pressures while strengthening the economy's supply response. A monetary tightening bias, the adoption of fiscal measures that will set the structural deficit on a steady downward path, and progress across a broad array of reforms aimed at boosting labor participation are among the mission's key recommendations. This would facilitate achieving the government's welcome objective of taking full advantage of Poland's EU membership through euro adoption.
Managing inflationary pressures and maintaining competitiveness.
1. Output growth is set to moderate to about 5 percent in 2008, as a weakening external environment tempers export growth and investment growth retreats from the earlier exceptional pace. Investment growth will, however, remain strong—sustained in part by steadily increasing EU funds—with continued robust growth in disposable income and consumption. Impetus to domestic demand will also come from the fiscal stimulus in store for 2008.
2. Inflationary pressures are, in our view, set to remain strong despite the slowdown in output growth. The rapid increase in employment, together with emigration, has now mostly absorbed the labor market slack, reflected in real wage growth well in excess of productivity gains and in real appreciation as measured by unit labor costs. Until recently, these cost pressures had only a limited adverse impact on core inflation and export growth as wage restraint in the first half of the decade had significantly bolstered profitability and export competitiveness margins. But the scope for squeezing profit margins will ultimately run its course, and cost pressures appear to be already feeding into prices, as evidenced by the increase in core inflation in recent months. Also—although still less conclusive—exports orders have shown signs of weakening.
3. Against this background, we believe that a continued tightening bias in monetary policy is warranted at this time. While headline inflation is likely to decline due to food price deceleration, our projections, based on unchanged policy, suggest that inflation will continue to run well above the 2½ percent target and will exceed the upper end of the band for most of 2008. Bringing inflation back to the target will not only prevent higher inflationary expectations from becoming entrenched, but also avoid the risk that expectations of a prolonged tightening bias in monetary policy causes speculative capital inflows and attendant upward pressures on the zloty.
4. Why do we not believe that the heightened risk of negative spillovers from the current financial market turmoil—through real and financial channels—calls for a pause in the tightening of monetary policy? Admittedly, the uncertainty regarding the external environment is substantial at this juncture and the spillovers could be stronger than we envisage. However, in our view, these downside risks are still more than offset by the risk that the continued significant excess of real wage growth over productivity growth will have a stronger-than-expected impact on inflation. While the potential negative external spillovers warrant caution, the MPC should be equally vigilant about the risk of second-round effects of food and energy price increases on wage demands, including the risk that current wage negotiations in the public sector ratchet up broader wage pressures.
5. Sustained fiscal consolidation is needed and we welcome the authorities' commitment to gradually reduce the structural deficit to 1 percent of GDP by 2011. This will help relieve monetary policy and thereby reduce the extent to which the burden of adjusting to tightening resource constraints falls on investment and exports. It will also increase the scope for automatic stabilizers to operate without jeopardizing Maastricht criteria, speed-up the reduction in public debt, and contain the widening of the external current account deficit. On the latter, our projections show that this deficit will increase over the medium term to the upper bounds of what is safe from a long-term perspective, suggesting that—in the absence of a reduction in the structural fiscal deficit—there would be an increased risk that the real exchange rate could overshoot its long-term equilibrium path in the event of a stronger-than-expected deterioration in the private sector's saving-investment balance. Indeed, if the economy threatens to overheat due to exceptionally high and sustained capital inflows, a more ambitious reduction in the structural deficit than currently envisaged would be the most effective means of preventing such overshooting.
6. The fiscal consolidation in 2008 could be more ambitious. The 2008 budget will, in our view, increase the structural deficit by up to ½ percent of GDP—in part because of cuts in social security contributions adopted last year (to cut the tax wedge)—requiring a stronger reduction in 2009-2011. To smooth the adjustment path, expenditure execution should be kept below appropriations, to the extent possible, in 2008. Being new in office, the government is in the process of formulating more detailed plans for how to achieve its fiscal objectives. While we agree with the objective of reducing the tax burden over the medium-term, deficit reduction should take priority. This implies considerable current expenditure reduction and, with as much as 70 percent of expenditures being non-discretionary, a key challenge facing the new government will be to streamline social benefit programs. In this regard, there will be important complementarities between fiscal objectives and measures to boost labor participation and long-term growth.
Sustaining strong growth over the medium-term
7. Boosting the labor force holds the key to long-term growth prospects. Much of the recent economic expansion has reflected increased labor utilization, but this is naturally coming to an end and continued strong growth will increasingly hinge on measures to raise Poland's exceptionally low level of labor participation, not least among those above 50 years of age. Reforming the generous provisions for early retirement, by tightening guidelines for eligibility, and further rationalizing the system for disability payments are key to increasing participation. Other important measures to increase participation and reallocate labor to more productive sectors include reducing the tax wedge, especially at lower level of incomes, and reforming the farmer's pension scheme (KRUS), with the ultimate goal of merging it into the general scheme. While changes in these areas will be politically and socially sensitive, incremental progress across such a broad array of reforms can significantly boost labor supply in the medium term. The potential of such reforms has been demonstrated by the experience of several EU member countries—including Ireland and the Netherlands—over the last two decades, especially in the context of social partnership frameworks.
8. Further deregulation and privatization are also necessary to bolster long-term growth prospects, especially since Poland lags its peers in this area. While EU accession has provided a welcome impetus, there is still scope for realizing significant catch-up gains in productivity by improving the business climate through deregulation, and accelerating privatization. Importantly, reforms in these areas have strong complementarities with the aforementioned labor market reforms. We therefore welcome the authorities' intention to give priority to reinvigorating the privatization program and cutting red tape.
Maintaining financial market stability
9. Polish credit and money markets have so far remained largely unaffected by the global market turbulence, even as credit growth has been increasingly financed by foreign borrowing. (The net foreign indebtedness of the banking sector remains, however, still relatively low.) Market participants attribute this to a high return on Polish assets and to the small share of the assets of Polish affiliates in parent groups' total assets. Importantly, any exposure to US sub-prime assets is expected to be minor and Polish banks have been somewhat sheltered from the recent turmoil, as the use of complex financial instruments and securization remains limited, and credit derivatives are absent. In this connection, the NBP's stress tests show continued banking system resilience, even in the face of increasingly uncertain global markets. Still, credit has expanded rapidly in recent years, particular into new, higher-risk markets, and part of this expansion has been financed by foreign borrowing. Supervisors need to closely monitor the risk of negative spillovers in the event of abrupt reductions in access to international capital markets. At this juncture, it is particularly important that the recent integration of banking sector supervision into the Polish Financial Supervision Authority (KNF) does not impair supervisory effectiveness.
Strengthening the policy framework
10. Additional steps are needed to ensure the KNF's supervisory effectiveness. We understand that a bilateral operational memorandum already governs the exchange of information between the KNF and the NBP and that all existing safety net arrangements, processes and human resources remain effective. The MoF, the NBP and the KNF have also agreed on a memorandum of understanding pertaining to financial stability. However, there is a need for legislation to make the tripartite framework operational. Also, the governance structure of the KNF falls short of international best practices concerning safeguards against political interference. Introducing fixed terms of appointment for all KNF board members would go a long way toward ensuring that board members, once appointed, are independent and serve in their technical capacity.
11. Achieving the government's fiscal objectives would be facilitated by establishing a medium-term fiscal framework centered on multi-year fixed expenditure targets. The current focus on annual budgets—with medium-term budget parameters in practice imposing no legal constraints—is not in line with international best practice. While such practices vary, we would recommend a 3-year expenditure framework, where global nominal expenditure ceilings are set on a rolling basis with limited scope for revision over time. The expenditure path should be derived from the government's medium-term deficit target and should encompass as much of general government expenditure as possible, with special provisions for EU funds. Improving coordination with local governments over spending targets would also be beneficial. Such a framework would reinforce the response of automatic stabilizers to demand shocks, and help build broader political support for medium-term fiscal priorities and underlying policies.
12. In conclusion, Poland has a fresh opportunity to take full advantage of its EU membership, including by adopting the euro. As this entails giving up independent monetary policy, the economy will need to be equipped to withstand shocks through increased flexibility in fiscal policy and in wages and prices. We therefore welcome the authorities' policy objectives as we believe that they—underpinned by concrete plans—will do much to foster a successful transition to euro adoption and ultimately allow Poland to thrive in the euro area.
IMF EXTERNAL RELATIONS DEPARTMENT
Public Affairs Media Relations
Phone: 202-623-7300 Phone: 202-623-7100
Fax: 202-623-6278 Fax: 202-623-6772
Preliminary Conclusions
January 21, 2008
Poland is enjoying strong and well-balanced growth, with only limited pressures on core inflation and the current account deficit so far. However, the expansion is facing emerging resource constraints, in particular labor shortages. Sustaining robust GDP growth and external competitiveness over the medium term will require meeting a dual challenge of containing demand pressures while strengthening the economy's supply response. A monetary tightening bias, the adoption of fiscal measures that will set the structural deficit on a steady downward path, and progress across a broad array of reforms aimed at boosting labor participation are among the mission's key recommendations. This would facilitate achieving the government's welcome objective of taking full advantage of Poland's EU membership through euro adoption.
Managing inflationary pressures and maintaining competitiveness.
1. Output growth is set to moderate to about 5 percent in 2008, as a weakening external environment tempers export growth and investment growth retreats from the earlier exceptional pace. Investment growth will, however, remain strong—sustained in part by steadily increasing EU funds—with continued robust growth in disposable income and consumption. Impetus to domestic demand will also come from the fiscal stimulus in store for 2008.
2. Inflationary pressures are, in our view, set to remain strong despite the slowdown in output growth. The rapid increase in employment, together with emigration, has now mostly absorbed the labor market slack, reflected in real wage growth well in excess of productivity gains and in real appreciation as measured by unit labor costs. Until recently, these cost pressures had only a limited adverse impact on core inflation and export growth as wage restraint in the first half of the decade had significantly bolstered profitability and export competitiveness margins. But the scope for squeezing profit margins will ultimately run its course, and cost pressures appear to be already feeding into prices, as evidenced by the increase in core inflation in recent months. Also—although still less conclusive—exports orders have shown signs of weakening.
3. Against this background, we believe that a continued tightening bias in monetary policy is warranted at this time. While headline inflation is likely to decline due to food price deceleration, our projections, based on unchanged policy, suggest that inflation will continue to run well above the 2½ percent target and will exceed the upper end of the band for most of 2008. Bringing inflation back to the target will not only prevent higher inflationary expectations from becoming entrenched, but also avoid the risk that expectations of a prolonged tightening bias in monetary policy causes speculative capital inflows and attendant upward pressures on the zloty.
4. Why do we not believe that the heightened risk of negative spillovers from the current financial market turmoil—through real and financial channels—calls for a pause in the tightening of monetary policy? Admittedly, the uncertainty regarding the external environment is substantial at this juncture and the spillovers could be stronger than we envisage. However, in our view, these downside risks are still more than offset by the risk that the continued significant excess of real wage growth over productivity growth will have a stronger-than-expected impact on inflation. While the potential negative external spillovers warrant caution, the MPC should be equally vigilant about the risk of second-round effects of food and energy price increases on wage demands, including the risk that current wage negotiations in the public sector ratchet up broader wage pressures.
5. Sustained fiscal consolidation is needed and we welcome the authorities' commitment to gradually reduce the structural deficit to 1 percent of GDP by 2011. This will help relieve monetary policy and thereby reduce the extent to which the burden of adjusting to tightening resource constraints falls on investment and exports. It will also increase the scope for automatic stabilizers to operate without jeopardizing Maastricht criteria, speed-up the reduction in public debt, and contain the widening of the external current account deficit. On the latter, our projections show that this deficit will increase over the medium term to the upper bounds of what is safe from a long-term perspective, suggesting that—in the absence of a reduction in the structural fiscal deficit—there would be an increased risk that the real exchange rate could overshoot its long-term equilibrium path in the event of a stronger-than-expected deterioration in the private sector's saving-investment balance. Indeed, if the economy threatens to overheat due to exceptionally high and sustained capital inflows, a more ambitious reduction in the structural deficit than currently envisaged would be the most effective means of preventing such overshooting.
6. The fiscal consolidation in 2008 could be more ambitious. The 2008 budget will, in our view, increase the structural deficit by up to ½ percent of GDP—in part because of cuts in social security contributions adopted last year (to cut the tax wedge)—requiring a stronger reduction in 2009-2011. To smooth the adjustment path, expenditure execution should be kept below appropriations, to the extent possible, in 2008. Being new in office, the government is in the process of formulating more detailed plans for how to achieve its fiscal objectives. While we agree with the objective of reducing the tax burden over the medium-term, deficit reduction should take priority. This implies considerable current expenditure reduction and, with as much as 70 percent of expenditures being non-discretionary, a key challenge facing the new government will be to streamline social benefit programs. In this regard, there will be important complementarities between fiscal objectives and measures to boost labor participation and long-term growth.
Sustaining strong growth over the medium-term
7. Boosting the labor force holds the key to long-term growth prospects. Much of the recent economic expansion has reflected increased labor utilization, but this is naturally coming to an end and continued strong growth will increasingly hinge on measures to raise Poland's exceptionally low level of labor participation, not least among those above 50 years of age. Reforming the generous provisions for early retirement, by tightening guidelines for eligibility, and further rationalizing the system for disability payments are key to increasing participation. Other important measures to increase participation and reallocate labor to more productive sectors include reducing the tax wedge, especially at lower level of incomes, and reforming the farmer's pension scheme (KRUS), with the ultimate goal of merging it into the general scheme. While changes in these areas will be politically and socially sensitive, incremental progress across such a broad array of reforms can significantly boost labor supply in the medium term. The potential of such reforms has been demonstrated by the experience of several EU member countries—including Ireland and the Netherlands—over the last two decades, especially in the context of social partnership frameworks.
8. Further deregulation and privatization are also necessary to bolster long-term growth prospects, especially since Poland lags its peers in this area. While EU accession has provided a welcome impetus, there is still scope for realizing significant catch-up gains in productivity by improving the business climate through deregulation, and accelerating privatization. Importantly, reforms in these areas have strong complementarities with the aforementioned labor market reforms. We therefore welcome the authorities' intention to give priority to reinvigorating the privatization program and cutting red tape.
Maintaining financial market stability
9. Polish credit and money markets have so far remained largely unaffected by the global market turbulence, even as credit growth has been increasingly financed by foreign borrowing. (The net foreign indebtedness of the banking sector remains, however, still relatively low.) Market participants attribute this to a high return on Polish assets and to the small share of the assets of Polish affiliates in parent groups' total assets. Importantly, any exposure to US sub-prime assets is expected to be minor and Polish banks have been somewhat sheltered from the recent turmoil, as the use of complex financial instruments and securization remains limited, and credit derivatives are absent. In this connection, the NBP's stress tests show continued banking system resilience, even in the face of increasingly uncertain global markets. Still, credit has expanded rapidly in recent years, particular into new, higher-risk markets, and part of this expansion has been financed by foreign borrowing. Supervisors need to closely monitor the risk of negative spillovers in the event of abrupt reductions in access to international capital markets. At this juncture, it is particularly important that the recent integration of banking sector supervision into the Polish Financial Supervision Authority (KNF) does not impair supervisory effectiveness.
Strengthening the policy framework
10. Additional steps are needed to ensure the KNF's supervisory effectiveness. We understand that a bilateral operational memorandum already governs the exchange of information between the KNF and the NBP and that all existing safety net arrangements, processes and human resources remain effective. The MoF, the NBP and the KNF have also agreed on a memorandum of understanding pertaining to financial stability. However, there is a need for legislation to make the tripartite framework operational. Also, the governance structure of the KNF falls short of international best practices concerning safeguards against political interference. Introducing fixed terms of appointment for all KNF board members would go a long way toward ensuring that board members, once appointed, are independent and serve in their technical capacity.
11. Achieving the government's fiscal objectives would be facilitated by establishing a medium-term fiscal framework centered on multi-year fixed expenditure targets. The current focus on annual budgets—with medium-term budget parameters in practice imposing no legal constraints—is not in line with international best practice. While such practices vary, we would recommend a 3-year expenditure framework, where global nominal expenditure ceilings are set on a rolling basis with limited scope for revision over time. The expenditure path should be derived from the government's medium-term deficit target and should encompass as much of general government expenditure as possible, with special provisions for EU funds. Improving coordination with local governments over spending targets would also be beneficial. Such a framework would reinforce the response of automatic stabilizers to demand shocks, and help build broader political support for medium-term fiscal priorities and underlying policies.
12. In conclusion, Poland has a fresh opportunity to take full advantage of its EU membership, including by adopting the euro. As this entails giving up independent monetary policy, the economy will need to be equipped to withstand shocks through increased flexibility in fiscal policy and in wages and prices. We therefore welcome the authorities' policy objectives as we believe that they—underpinned by concrete plans—will do much to foster a successful transition to euro adoption and ultimately allow Poland to thrive in the euro area.
IMF EXTERNAL RELATIONS DEPARTMENT
Public Affairs Media Relations
Phone: 202-623-7300 Phone: 202-623-7100
Fax: 202-623-6278 Fax: 202-623-6772
Friday, February 1, 2008
Hi-Tech’s New Best Friend: Section 337 and the Enforcement of U.S. Intellectual Property Rights Against Importers of Hi-Tech Merchandise
Hi-Tech’s New Best Friend: Section 337 and the Enforcement of U.S. Intellectual Property Rights Against Importers of Hi-Tech Merchandise
By V. James Adduci II and Michael L. Doane
Published in the North American Free Trade & Investment Report (February 15, 2000)
With the advent of the Internet, computers and other information technology, a noteworthy battle has ensued over hi-tech goods manufactured by overseas operations that infringe the intellectual property rights of U.S. businesses. As a result, U.S. businesses have frequently sought to utilize Section 337 of the Tariff Act of 1930 to protect their intellectual property rights. Section 337 protects a U.S. business from foreign infringement of intellectual property rights, as well as other unfair acts, perpetrated by those importing products into the U.S. Many large and small U.S. companies in the information technology industry, among them Intel, have mounted Section 337 investigations to obtain relief from infringing imports.
The explosion of e-commerce and the Internet also has effected Section 337 investigations in a manner beyond just the influx of hardware related investigations. For example, offers for sale over the Internet may be construed as an offer for the sale of a product for importation into the United States, thus establishing jurisdiction under Section 337. Indeed, several complainants in recent Section 337 investigations have specifically referenced respondents’ Web sites as evidence of sales for importation. Although an infringing product of foreign manufacture may be bought and sold by a customer in the United States over the Internet, it still must at some point be shipped to the United States, thus violating Section 337.
The U.S. International Trade Commission
Section 337, which prohibits the importation of a product that infringes on a valid and enforceable U.S. patent, copyright, trademark or registered semiconductor mask work, has proven to be very attractive to U.S. businesses, particularly companies in the information technology industry, with significant investments in their intellectual property portfolios. As a result, the U.S. International Trade Commission ("ITC") has instituted Section 337 investigations involving a wide range of information technology products, including SDRAMs, DRAMs, ASICs, CD-ROM Controllers, Coated Optical Waveguide Fibers, Digital Satellite System Receivers, Self-Powered Fiber Optic Modems, Screen Printing Machines and Facsimile Machines.
ITC Proceedings Offer Advantages Over U.S. Federal Court
For U.S. businesses facing imports of infringing products, Section 337, as administered by the ITC, has many attractive features not available in U.S. federal court. In addition to such procedural advantages as national jurisdiction over imported products and worldwide discovery, Section 337 investigations generally are completed within one year from the date of institution, as compared to three or more years in federal court, thus providing the intellectual property owner with comparatively expeditious relief. In addition, the requirements for obtaining jurisdiction over a foreign defendant and the limited ability of a federal court to compel discovery abroad greatly restrict a U.S. intellectual property owner’s ability to enforce its rights against foreign infringers in federal court. Furthermore, Section 337 hearings are conducted by Administrative Law Judges experienced in complex intellectual property issues.
Perhaps the most notable advantage of a Section 337 investigation from a complainant’s perspective is that, if a violation is established, the ITC will issue an exclusion order, with the U.S. Customs Service acting as the enforcement arm. A federal court injunction against further infringement has no such enforcement. Under certain circumstances, cease and desist orders against domestic parties, i.e., U.S. distributors of the infringing imports, and exclusionary relief against entities not party to the proceedings are also available. Although no money damages are recoverable before the ITC, because of these advantages over federal court litigation, Section 337 has become an extremely popular tool for the enforcement of intellectual property rights.
Since 1993, over 90 percent of the investigations instituted by the ITC have been based on patent infringement with over 40 percent of the investigations since 1995 involving information technology. The ITC has developed useful expertise in many fields of technology as well as in the area of intellectual law. This expertise has given the ITC a significant record of success on appeal with over 65 percent of its decisions in Section 337 investigations affirmed by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. Although such statistics are no guarantee of success before the ITC, they demonstrate the value of the ITC as a forum resolving intellectual property disputes.
The effectiveness of Section 337 investigations in protecting intellectual property rights has caused such leaders in the information technology industry as Intel Corporation and Samsung Electronics Co., Ltd. to use Section 337 to pursue infringers of their patent rights. Intel sought relief from imports from Taiwan that it alleged were infringing certain of its patents relating to DRAM controllers and multiplayer integrated circuits. Samsung sought relief from allegedly infringing imports of RAMs from Japan and Singapore.
In both Intel and Samsung cases, the investigations were terminated based on a settlement agreement. This fact underscores another important aspect of a Section 337 investigation, its value as leverage for achieving settlement. A Section 337 investigation can be filed concurrently with a patent infringement action, although the patent infringement action may be stayed pending the outcome of the Section 337 investigation, and is frequently used as added pressure to attain settlement. In fact, since 1995, over 40 percent of all Section 337 investigations instituted by the ITC have resulted in settlement. The threat of an expedited hearing, broad discovery and potential exclusion from the U.S. marketplace is frequently enough to bring infringing parties to the bargaining table.
U.S. Companies Equally Subject to Section 337 Investigations
The fact that Samsung was able to use Section 337 to defend its U.S. patent rights raises another interesting point. It is not required that the complainant in a Section 337 investigation be a U.S. entity nor, indeed, is it required that the respondent be a foreign entity. In fact, the entities accused of infringing Samsung’ U.S. patent rights were Texas Instruments, Inc., Texas Instruments Singapore (PTE), Ltd. and Texas Instruments Japan, Inc. All that is required of complainant is that it be the owner of a U.S. intellectual property right and that it maintain a "domestic industry" relating to that intellectual property right or be in the process of establishing such a "domestic industry."
A U.S. entity can find itself a respondent in a Section 337 investigation if it is importing articles that allegedly infringe a U.S. intellectual property right. The ITC has noted that "[t]he statute, by its terms, does not limit coverage to articles for foreign manufacture." Consequently, the ITC has applied Section 337 to domestic producers whose products are manufactured offshore and then brought into the United States. The fact that a company may be a member of the "domestic industry" does not shield it from liability. Section 337 also applies to domestically produced goods that are shipped abroad for assembly and re-imported into the United States. Domestic manufacturers with offshore assembly operations, therefore, should be aware of their potential exposure to Section 337 and a resulting exclusion order. Section 337 thus provides intellectual property rights owners with an effective procedure to use against both foreign and domestic infringers.
As the marketplace becomes increasingly international and technology based, the importance of obtaining effective protection of intellectual property rights against infringing imports can only grow. Section 337 offers a fast, efficient and most importantly effective tool for obtaining this protection. For all these reasons, intellectual property rights owners and their counsel should consider Section 337 as a part of any strategy to address imported products that infringe their intellectual property rights.
James Adduci is a partner at Adduci, Mastriani & Schaumberg, L.L.P. in Washington, D.C. The firm specializes in international trade, intellectual property, government contracts and federal litigation. Michael Doane is an attorney in the firm where his practice focuses on international trade (particularly Section 337 investigations) and intellectual property litigation.
Reprinted with permission from North American Free Trade & Investment Report. Copyright 2000 WorldTrade Executive, Inc. All rights reserved.
Alex Lech Bajan
CEO
RAQport Inc.
2004 North Monroe Street
Arlington Virginia 22207
Washington DC Area
USA
TEL: 703-528-0114
TEL2: 703-652-0993
FAX: 703-940-8300
sms: 703-485-6619
EMAIL: office@raqport.com
WEB SITE: http://raqport.com
SIGNIFICANT INCREASES TO IMPORT DUTIES POSSIBLE, Rapid Customs Information Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 2
SIGNIFICANT INCREASES TO IMPORT DUTIES POSSIBLE, Rapid Customs Information Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 2
U.S. Customs and Border Protection is seeking comments from the public regarding an interpretation of transaction value in multi-tiered sales transactions, which, if adopted, could significantly increase the value to which U.S. import duties are applied. Customs' proposed interpretation of transaction value will apply only to U.S. imported merchandise that was subject to two or more sales prior to its importation into the United States.
For example, assume U.S. company A contacts foreign distributor B and orders merchandise. Further assume that foreign distributor B contacts foreign manufacturer C to manufacture that merchandise. Under Customs' current interpretation of transaction value, which is supported by decisions of the U.S. Court of International Trade and the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, Customs uses the sale price of the merchandise between distributor B and manufacturer C (the " First Sale") as the basis for transaction value if Customs finds the sale between distributor B and manufacturer C to be at arm's length, and the goods were identified as being destined for the United States at the time of the First Sale.
Now, using an interpretation issued in July 2007 by a Technical Committee of the World Customs Organization's Committee on Customs Valuation, which has already been adopted by many WTO members, Customs is proposing to use the price of the merchandise in the sale to the U.S. importer (the transaction between U.S. company A and foreign distributor B in the example above) (the "Last Sale " instead of the "First Sale") as the basis for transaction value, if Customs finds the sale to the U.S. importer to be at arm's length.
Customs states that some of the benefits to this new interpretation are the following: (1) access to records will be easier because the documents associated with the sale to the U.S. importer will likely be more readily available than those associated with the sale between the foreign distributor and the foreign manufacturer; and (2) Customs will be better able to identify, calculate, and apply the additions to transaction value, such as assists, to the sale to the U.S. importer.
As you can see, most of the benefits that Customs states the new interpretation will provide are actually adverse to importers. There is also an issue of whether Customs has the authority to change its position in a manner contrary to judicial precedent.
Click here to view 01/24/08 Federal Register notice http://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/01jan20081800/edocket.access.gpo.gov/2008/E8-1140.htm
Comments on Customs' proposed interpretation must be received by Customs on or before March 24, 2008. Please let me know if you would like to submit a comment on Customs' proposed interpretation.
If you have any questions about the proposed interpretation, please do not hesitate to contact Harvey B. Fox, Esq. of Adduci, Mastriani & Schaumberg, L.L.P. via e-mail at fox@adduci.com
HARVEY B. FOX did his undergraduate work at the University of Baltimore where he also received his J.D. in 1964. He was with the U. S. Customs Service for almost 30 years prior to entering the private practice of law in October 1995. He served as Director, Office of Regulations and Rulings, from 1986 through 1995, where he was responsible for the development, implementation and evaluation of national legal programs and policies and for the issuance of rulings regarding the importation of merchandise into the United States.
From 1980 through 1986, he served as Director, Classification and Value Division, where he was responsible for issuing legal determinations concerning the tariff classification and valuation of merchandise imported into the United States. He also served as the head of the Customs Delegation to the Customs Cooperation Council (CCC) for valuation in Brussels. From 1977 through 1980, as Director of the Entry Procedures and Penalties Division, he issued decisions regarding country of origin, infringements of copyright and trademark registrations, restricted merchandise, penalty matters and entry procedures. From 1973 through 1977, as Director, Regulations and Legal Publications Division, he drafted policy matters and regulations dealing with the importation of merchandise and disseminated legal decisions to the public and Customs field offices.
He was President of the Customs Lawyers Association for seven years and is a member of the District of Columbia and Maryland Bars, the American Bar Association, the Federal Bar Association and the District of Columbia Bar Association. He is admitted to practice before the Supreme Court, Court of International Trade, Court of Appeals
of Baltimore where he also received his J.D. in 1964. He was with the U. S. Customs Service for almost 30 years prior to entering the private practice of law in October 1995.
HARVEY B. FOX
fox@adduci.com
202. 467. 6300
My contact:
Alex Lech Bajan
CEO
RAQport Inc.
2004 North Monroe Street
Arlington Virginia 22207
Washington DC Area
USA
TEL: 703-528-0114
TEL2: 703-652-0993
FAX: 703-940-8300
sms: 703-485-6619
EMAIL: office@raqport.com
WEB SITE: http://raqport.com
Thursday, January 17, 2008
Poles, Czechs Balk at Missile Shield
Poles, Czechs Balk at Missile Shield
Wednesday, Jan. 16, 2008 By ANDREW PURVIS/BERLIN US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates (R) escorts Poland's Defense Minister Bogdan Klich through a Military Honor Cordon at the Pentagon in Washington, DC
Saul Loeb / AFP / GettyArticle ToolsPrintEmailReprintsSphereAddThisRSS The U.S. has few friends in Europe more loyal than Poland and the Czech Republic, which may be one reason why Washington chose the former Soviet-captive countries as prospective sites for its new missile-defense shield. Initially, the governments in Warsaw and Prague seemed ready enough to host the U.S. facilities — 10 interceptor missiles in northern Poland and associated radar stations in the Czech Republic — despite strenuous objections from Moscow. (While Washington insists the system's purpose is to guard against potential missile threats from North Korea and Iran, the Russians suspect it is the thin end of a wedge designed to neutralize their own nuclear missile deterrent.) But lately, even the Poles and Czechs have begun to ask more of Washington in return for their cooperation.
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Following the election of a pragmatic centrist government last year, Poland wants U.S. help in upgrading its own air defense capabilities in return for its cooperation on a project that several officials have said may not directly aid Poland's own interests. Polish Defense Minister Bogdan Klich met this week in Washington with U.S. Defense Secretary Robert Gates and Deputy Secretary of State John Negroponte, to lay out Poland's price tag for hosting the missile shield. Warsaw wants new tactical anti-missile batteries to protect its own airspace, as well as security guarantees and agreements similar to those enjoyed by Italy and Turkey that would avail Poland of improved military technologies. And several leading ministers have made clear that they are now in no rush to complete negotiations. "It is not a race against time. The essential thing is to get what we want from the negotiation, for the Polish as well as the Czech sides," explained Poland's Prime Minister Donald Tusk, speaking alongside his Czech counterpart, Mirek Topolanek, on the eve of Klich's trip to Washington. Polish Foreign Minister Radek Sikorski has said he does not expect talks to conclude until after November's U.S. elections.
Washington has not welcomed the new Polish attitude. Pentagon spokesman Geoff Morrell said this week that comments from Warsaw about a lack of urgency on the matter were "not helpful." He added: "Proceeding with this process in as expeditious a manner as possible is to the benefit of everyone, including the Poles." Still, Klich welcomed what he called the beginning of discussions on security guarantees. "This is an important declaration because we still in Poland do not see the right balance between the costs and the benefits of this installation," he said. The Polish daily Gazeta Wyborcza reported Wednesday that Washington may be willing to entertain security guarantees, but remains "cool" to the idea of providing Poland with Patriot or similar air defense batteries because this might interfere with plans for a NATO-wide system.
And Washington is clearly moving to expedite the discussion. Even as Klich was returning from Washington on Wednesday, U.S. Assistant Secretary of State Dan Fried was in Warsaw to discuss the missile shield with government officials. And in the Czech Republic, Pentagon missile-defense chief Lt. Gen. Henry Obering was hosting a conference at the Foreign Ministry in which he reiterated Washington's case for urgency in deploying the system. The recent U.S. National Intelligence Estimate that concluded with "high confidence" that Iran had shut down its nuclear weapons program back in 2003 made no difference to Washington's long-term assessment of the risk, Obering said Wednesday. Whether Iran has a nuclear weapons program or not, Obering said that Tehran is still rushing to extend the reach of its missiles. "They are developing ranges of missiles that go far beyond anything they would need in a regional fight, for example with Israel," he said. "Why are they developing missiles today that [could] reach Europe — the capitals of Europe — in a few years? Why? Are we going to sit back and allow ourselves not be able to defend against a coercive threat or an active threat should that evolve?" Following the meeting the Czech Foreign Minister Karel Schwarzengerg announced that the Czechs hoped to draft a "framework" agreement on technical cooperation with Czech companies as early as this spring but that conditions for a broader political agreement to host the project are still being discussed.
While not opposed to the U.S. missile-defense project, Poland and the Czech Republic are increasingly concerned about the potential consequences of provoking Russia. Polish Foreign Minister Sikorski has said that the "worst case scenario" would be for Poland to incur Moscow's wrath by accepting the project, only to see it canned by a subsequent Administration in Washington. Poland, he argued, should be in no rush to sign on to the deal before carefully examining the consequences for Polish national interests. "This is an American, not a Polish project," he said. "We feel no threat from Iran." Defense Minister Klich added on the eve of his departure for Washington: "There is lots of frustration in Poland about the discongruity between the American declarations and the real state of our cooperation. The U.S. reaction to our expectations will be a test whether Washington really treats Poland as its partner in Central Europe."
Public opinion in both countries is mildly opposed to the project, mainly because of fears that it could drag them into some ill-defined conflict with Russia or even subject them to terror attacks. In a recent poll, some 70% of Czechs said they did not want the facility on their territory. While neither the Czechs nor the Poles have any sympathy for Moscow, they are concerned about provoking an unpredictable neighbor in order to facilitate a project about whose rationale, effectiveness and even longevity they have yet to be convinced.
Wednesday, Jan. 16, 2008 By ANDREW PURVIS/BERLIN US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates (R) escorts Poland's Defense Minister Bogdan Klich through a Military Honor Cordon at the Pentagon in Washington, DC
Saul Loeb / AFP / GettyArticle ToolsPrintEmailReprintsSphereAddThisRSS The U.S. has few friends in Europe more loyal than Poland and the Czech Republic, which may be one reason why Washington chose the former Soviet-captive countries as prospective sites for its new missile-defense shield. Initially, the governments in Warsaw and Prague seemed ready enough to host the U.S. facilities — 10 interceptor missiles in northern Poland and associated radar stations in the Czech Republic — despite strenuous objections from Moscow. (While Washington insists the system's purpose is to guard against potential missile threats from North Korea and Iran, the Russians suspect it is the thin end of a wedge designed to neutralize their own nuclear missile deterrent.) But lately, even the Poles and Czechs have begun to ask more of Washington in return for their cooperation.
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Following the election of a pragmatic centrist government last year, Poland wants U.S. help in upgrading its own air defense capabilities in return for its cooperation on a project that several officials have said may not directly aid Poland's own interests. Polish Defense Minister Bogdan Klich met this week in Washington with U.S. Defense Secretary Robert Gates and Deputy Secretary of State John Negroponte, to lay out Poland's price tag for hosting the missile shield. Warsaw wants new tactical anti-missile batteries to protect its own airspace, as well as security guarantees and agreements similar to those enjoyed by Italy and Turkey that would avail Poland of improved military technologies. And several leading ministers have made clear that they are now in no rush to complete negotiations. "It is not a race against time. The essential thing is to get what we want from the negotiation, for the Polish as well as the Czech sides," explained Poland's Prime Minister Donald Tusk, speaking alongside his Czech counterpart, Mirek Topolanek, on the eve of Klich's trip to Washington. Polish Foreign Minister Radek Sikorski has said he does not expect talks to conclude until after November's U.S. elections.
Washington has not welcomed the new Polish attitude. Pentagon spokesman Geoff Morrell said this week that comments from Warsaw about a lack of urgency on the matter were "not helpful." He added: "Proceeding with this process in as expeditious a manner as possible is to the benefit of everyone, including the Poles." Still, Klich welcomed what he called the beginning of discussions on security guarantees. "This is an important declaration because we still in Poland do not see the right balance between the costs and the benefits of this installation," he said. The Polish daily Gazeta Wyborcza reported Wednesday that Washington may be willing to entertain security guarantees, but remains "cool" to the idea of providing Poland with Patriot or similar air defense batteries because this might interfere with plans for a NATO-wide system.
And Washington is clearly moving to expedite the discussion. Even as Klich was returning from Washington on Wednesday, U.S. Assistant Secretary of State Dan Fried was in Warsaw to discuss the missile shield with government officials. And in the Czech Republic, Pentagon missile-defense chief Lt. Gen. Henry Obering was hosting a conference at the Foreign Ministry in which he reiterated Washington's case for urgency in deploying the system. The recent U.S. National Intelligence Estimate that concluded with "high confidence" that Iran had shut down its nuclear weapons program back in 2003 made no difference to Washington's long-term assessment of the risk, Obering said Wednesday. Whether Iran has a nuclear weapons program or not, Obering said that Tehran is still rushing to extend the reach of its missiles. "They are developing ranges of missiles that go far beyond anything they would need in a regional fight, for example with Israel," he said. "Why are they developing missiles today that [could] reach Europe — the capitals of Europe — in a few years? Why? Are we going to sit back and allow ourselves not be able to defend against a coercive threat or an active threat should that evolve?" Following the meeting the Czech Foreign Minister Karel Schwarzengerg announced that the Czechs hoped to draft a "framework" agreement on technical cooperation with Czech companies as early as this spring but that conditions for a broader political agreement to host the project are still being discussed.
While not opposed to the U.S. missile-defense project, Poland and the Czech Republic are increasingly concerned about the potential consequences of provoking Russia. Polish Foreign Minister Sikorski has said that the "worst case scenario" would be for Poland to incur Moscow's wrath by accepting the project, only to see it canned by a subsequent Administration in Washington. Poland, he argued, should be in no rush to sign on to the deal before carefully examining the consequences for Polish national interests. "This is an American, not a Polish project," he said. "We feel no threat from Iran." Defense Minister Klich added on the eve of his departure for Washington: "There is lots of frustration in Poland about the discongruity between the American declarations and the real state of our cooperation. The U.S. reaction to our expectations will be a test whether Washington really treats Poland as its partner in Central Europe."
Public opinion in both countries is mildly opposed to the project, mainly because of fears that it could drag them into some ill-defined conflict with Russia or even subject them to terror attacks. In a recent poll, some 70% of Czechs said they did not want the facility on their territory. While neither the Czechs nor the Poles have any sympathy for Moscow, they are concerned about provoking an unpredictable neighbor in order to facilitate a project about whose rationale, effectiveness and even longevity they have yet to be convinced.
Sunday, January 13, 2008
Badania polskiej Biblii Gutenberga przyniosły nowe odkrycia
Badania polskiej Biblii Gutenberga przyniosły nowe odkrycia2006-03-21 12:13:26
Badania nad Biblią Pelplińską potwierdziły jej niezwykłość i ujawniły nieznane dotąd fakty. „Biblia Pelplińska ma szczególną wartość. Żal tylko, że w Polsce tak mało wie się o jej istnieniu, choć nawet Japończycy doceniają jej wyjątkowość” – mówi Tadeusz Grajpel, założyciel Pracowni Rzemiosł Dawnych w Końskich (woj. świętokrzyskie), zajmujący się, jak sam mówi, nośnikami informacji z przeszłości, głównie Średniowiecza.Dwutomowa księga z Pelplina (woj. pomorskie) to jeden z ok. 50 egzemplarzy Biblii, które dotrwały do naszych czasów.spośród ok.200 wydrukowanych przez Gutenberga w latach 1452-55. Podobnie jak pozostałe egzemplarze, zawiera łaciński tekst Pisma Świętego w tłumaczeniu św. Hieronima – tak zwaną Wulgatę.Jej wydawca, Jan Gutenberg, zastosował nie tylko pionierską metodę druku, wykorzystując metalowe czcionki, ale także druk dwustronny oraz dwukolorowy.DRUK KOLOROWY I KOZIA SKÓRAGutenberg, XV-wieczny drukarz, wynalazł metalową, ruchomą czcionkę. Do jej odlewu wykorzystał stop ołowiu z cyną. Na 46 stronie egzemplarza z Pelplina zachował się odciśnięty zarys takiej czcionki. „To ewenement - przewrócona czcionka, ewidentny błąd w sztuce drukarskiej, to jedyny ślad ukazujący ich wygląd i budowę. Najstarsze zachowane przykłady czcionek datowane są dopiero na XVI wiek”” – mówi Tadeusz Grajpel..Proces produkcji książki odbywał się w drukarni. Czcionki ułożone w wersy wkładano w formę, uzyskując matrycę z tekstem. Następnie na czcionki nakładano farbę drukarską, przygotowaną z sadzy i pokostu. Kolejny etap to nakładanie papieru lub pergaminu (pergamin był cenniejszy, Biblia Pelplińska została wydrukowana na papierze) na matrycę i dociskanie za pomocą prasy drukarskiej.Ten prosty proces produkcji Gutenberg wzbogacił o dwa nowe wynalazki – druk dwukolorowy i dwustronny. „Zwykle w tekście zostawiano puste przestrzenie dla rubrykatora (osoba zajmująca się dopisywaniem szczególnie ważnych fragmentów na czerwono i zaznaczaniem tym kolorem np. pierwszych liter w zdaniu – PAP). Biblia z Pelplina została wykonana techniką druku dwukolorowego – czarno-czerwonego” – wyjaśnia Grajpel. „To bardzo ważne ustalenie – wynik ostatnich badań. Do tej pory druk dwukolorowy wiązano z czasami późniejszymi. Tylko część nakładu Gutenberg wykonał w ten sposób. Kolejnym rewolucyjnym wynalazkiem była wodoodporna farba. Miała ona ogromne znaczenie, gdyż umożliwiła druk dwustronny jednej kartki” – zaznacza.„Do czasów Gutenberga wszystkie druki wykonywano na jednej stronie papieru, gdyż jedynym sposobem, aby farba, wyprodukowana ze zwykłej sadzy i pokostu, trwale do niej przywarła było uprzednie namoczenie kartki. Mokry papier jednak tym samym uniemożliwiał druk z drugiej strony. Wszystko się rozmazywało i brudziło” – tłumaczy założyciel Pracowni Rzemiosł Dawnych. Gutenberg udoskonalił farbę, zmieniając jej skład. „Sadzę uzyskał poprzez spalanie żywicy przy niepełnym dostępie powietrza, jak przy wędzeniu. Ten składnik farby zawierał bardzo tłuste substancje smoliste o właściwościach impregnujących. Na końcu, przy rozcieraniu farby, do pokostu dodawał łój barani, w efekcie otrzymując farbę wodoodporną. Papier zadrukowany taką farbą można było moczyć i suszyć nawet wielokrotnie. Dzięki tej technologii Gutenberg drukował bezpiecznie i z doskonałą jakością obie strony” – wyjaśnia Tadeusz Grajpel Ostatnim etapem wydawania Biblii były prace introligatorskie. Egzemplarz z Pelplina również i na tym polu może poszczycić się oryginalnym rozwiązaniem. „Za jej oprawę wziął się słynny średniowieczny introligator – mistrz Henryk Coster z Lubeki. Użył do tego niezwykle trwałej koziej skóry, którą łatwo jest zdobić. Tylko ten egzemplarz został tak oprawiony” – zastrzega Grajpel.BIBLIA PŁYNĘŁA ATLANTYKIEMJak bardzo cenna jest Biblii Pelplińska, niech świadczy jej historia. Księga została zakupiona do użytku kościelnego w XV wieku, prawdopodobnie przez biskupa chełmińskiego Mikołaja Chrapickiego. W 1833 roku znalazła się w bibliotece seminaryjnej w Pelplinie. W czasie II wojny światowej zaistniało realne niebezpieczeństwo utraty Biblii. „Na dzieło z Pelplina, zresztą jak i inne polskie zabytki, mieli ochotę Niemcy. Utworzyli specjalną jednostkę do szukania zabytków” – mówi Tadeusz Grajpel.Sprytem i brawurą popisał się wówczas ks. dr Antoni Liedtke (1904-1994), ówczesny konserwator zabytków diecezji chełmińskiej. Zapakował księgę do walizki i tak zaczęła się jej długa podróż. Wraz z innymi skarbami Biblia dotarła do Rumunii, potem do stolicy Francji, Paryża. Następnie do Londynu, by wkrótce wyruszyć słynnym transatlantykiem „Batorym” do Kanady. 20 lat później, 24 lutego 1959 roku, powróciła do Pelplina. Jej wojenne losy opisał ks. Liedtke w książce „Saga pelplińskiej Biblii Gutenberga” (1981).GUTENBERG DRUKOWAŁ PROROCTWA SYBILLIHistoria samego wydawcy Biblii jest równie ciekawa. Jan Gutenberg przyszedł na świat w Moguncji ok. roku 1400. Jak uważa Tadeusz Grajpel, początek wynalazkowi czcionki mógł dać etap życia Gutenberga w Strasburgu (lata 30 i 40 XV w.). „Odlewał tam znaczki pamiątkowe dla pielgrzymów. Robił do nich formy odlewnicze oraz, co szczególnie ważne dla wynalazku czcionki, tzw. tłoczki introligatorskie, czyli metalowe matryce do zdobienia skórzanych opraw ksiąg. Nasz bohater często korzystał z różnych surowców, dzięki czemu zdobył ogromną wiedzę w dziedzinie metalurgii” – wyjaśnia. W tym samym czasie zaczął także doświadczenia z drukiem.Gutenberg powrócił do Moguncji, gdzie wydrukował Biblię. Jej druk był jednak ukoronowaniem jego pracy, a nie początkiem. „Miał duże problemy finansowe, dość powiedzieć, że większość źródeł o nim to dokumenty sądowe dotyczące procesów i spłat długów” – tłumaczy Grajpel i dodaje: "Dlatego też pierwsze druki, takie jak 'Proroctwa Sybilli' czy podręcznik gramatyki łacińskiej Aeliusa Donata i kalendarze były, można rzec, komercyjne. Służyły zarobkowi, ale i były ważną próbą przed głównym dziełem. Można wnioskować to po ich obserwacji, gdyż każdy następny druk jest jakościowo lepszy od poprzedniego”.Brak funduszów na kontynuowanie prac nad swoim wynalazkiem zmusił Gutenberga do zaciągnięcia w 1450 roku pożyczki u bankiera Johanna Fusta. Owocem tego była spółka – Fust dawał kapitał, Gutenberg umiejętności i przygotowanie zawodowe. Jednym z pierwszych przedsięwzięć było wydanie Biblii. W owym czasie księga ta była tak droga, że tylko nieliczni mogli ją mieć na własność. Mistrz z Moguncji chciał wydrukować wiele jednakowych Biblii, które byłyby znacznie tańsze od rękopiśmiennych kopii i co najmniej równie piękne. W latach 1452-1455 powstało 180 dwutomowych egzemplarzy Biblii.Z czasem jednak doszło miedzy wspólnikami do nieporozumień, co w efekcie doprowadziło do procesu. Wyrokiem sądu z 1455 roku Fust stał się właścicielem oficyny drukarskiej Gutenberga i wraz z jego uczniem, Schoefferem, przystąpił do uruchomienia działalności wydawniczej. Gutenberg pozostał w Moguncji i prawdopodobnie zajmował się jeszcze niewielkim w nakładzie drukowaniem. W Polsce z tego okresu życia Gutenberga również zachowały się ciekawe zabytki. „Fragmenty korektowe (próbne odbitki służące do korekty – PAP) trzech druków Gutenberga, światowych unikatów, są przechowywane w Bibliotece Jagiellońskiej” – mówi mgr Zofia Wawrykiewicz, kustosz BJ. „Są to tzw. 'Tablica planet dla astrologów' wydrukowana w Moguncji około roku 1457/58, 27-wierszowa karta podręcznika gramatyki łacińskiej Aeliusa Donata i karta 40-wierszowej Biblii z Moguncji datowana na 1458 rok, pozostałość próby rozplanowania tekstu przed wydaną w 1459 roku 36-wierszową tzw. Biblią Bamberską” – wymienia mgr Wawrykiewicz.Pod koniec życia Gutenberga dotknęła ołowica, choroba wywołana przedawkowaniem ołowiu, oślepł. Zmarł 3 lutego 1468 roku na dworze arcybiskupa Adolfa von Nassau. DRUK W SŁUŻBIE KOŚCIOŁAWynalazek druku pomysłu Gutenberga szybko podchwycił Kościół. Do tej pory księgi kościelne były przepisywane ręcznie, co rodziło wiele błędów i brak spójności treści, a do tego produkcja była czasochłonna i droga. Powielanie za pomocą druku rozwiązywało wszystkie te problemy. „Rzadko druk osiągał nakład większy niż 250-500 egzemplarzy” – określa Tadeusz Grajpel. „Wyjątek stanowią druki będące odpowiednikiem dzisiejszych ulotek czy też obwieszczeń, te mogły mieć ok. 20 tys. nakładu” – zaznacza.Pierwszy druk w języku polskim także związany jest z Kościołem. „W 1475 roku ukazały się łacińskie 'Statuty synodu biskupstwa wrocławskiego', uzupełnione polskimi tekstami modlitw 'Ojcze nasz', 'Zdrowaś Mario' i 'Wierzę w Boga'. Wyszły one z drukarni Kaspra Elyana we Wrocławiu” – mówi założyciel Pracowni Rzemiosł Dawnych.W Polsce prawdziwym ośrodkiem drukarskim stał się Kraków. „Jeszcze w wieku XV działali tam Kasper Straube (zachowały się wydane przez niego Almanach Krakowski i dzieła teologiczne) i Szwajpolt Fiol (wydrukował ruskie księgi liturgiczne). Później dołączają m.in. Jan Haller, Florian Ungler oraz rodzina Scharffenbergów” – opowiada Tadeusz Grajpel. Już na początku XVI wieku wydrukowano w Krakowie tekst Bogurodzicy, podręczniki, druki liturgiczne, w grudniu 1513 r. - uznany za pierwszą polską książkę „Raj duszny” Biernata z Lublina, a w 1543 r. - „Krótką rozprawę między trzema osobami: Panem, Wójtem a Plebanem” Mikołaja Reja. Następne ośrodki drukarskie pojawiły się m.in. w Gdańsku, Królewcu oraz Toruniu. FANATYK TEMATUJaka jest przyszłość druku? „Być może w nawale elektroniki książka drukowana stanie się rarytasem, ale nie obawiam się tego. Historia uczy pokory – wszak telewizja miała zabić kino, a wcale do tego nie doszło. W internecie można znaleźć wszystko, bezwartościowe informacje, tanią rozrywkę, każdy może tam wrzucić coś, co tylko sobie zażyczy, natomiast książka to dzieło prezentujące pewien zestaw wartości wymagający wysiłku intelektualnego” – uważa Grajpel.Tadeusz Grajpel to prawdziwy fanatyk tematu – zrekonstruował XV-wieczną prasę Gutenberga. Teraz w swojej pracowni prowadzi badania nad sposobem, w jaki mistrz z Moguncji odlewał czcionki. „Ostatnie takie eksperymenty wykonywano niezbyt efektywnie około 100 lat temu. Zajmuję się nie tylko teorią – to w poszczególnych dziedzinach robiło i robi wielu – prowadzę badania praktyczne, bo niektóre z informacji można uzyskać wyłącznie poprzez odtworzenie procesów technologicznych. Szeroko rozumiana archeologia doświadczalna, rekonstruowanie dawnych technologii w wielu obszarach badań historycznych dostarcza danych bezcennych, bo nieuchwytnych w jakichkolwiek źródłach” – wyjaśnia Grajpel.„Prace zbliżają się do końca. Myślę optymistycznie, że na publicznie zaprezentowane naukowe wnioski będzie czas mniej więcej za rok” – dodaje.Badania z lat 2000-2004 nad Biblią Pelplińską Założyciel Pracowni Rzemiosł Dawnych działa również na polu edukacyjnym. „Przedstawiam efekty swoich prac doświadczalnych, organizuję wykłady, warsztaty, występuję na konferencjach” – podsumowuje.
PAP - Nauka w Polsce, Adam Lisiecki
Życiorys
Działalność Gutenberga przypada na okres rozwoju drukarstwa w zachodniej Europie. Początkowo Gutenberg stosował znane już wcześniej w Europie czcionki drewniane, z czasem opracował własną wersję czcionek metalowych (również znanych już w Europie), posługiwał się także czcionkami glinianymi. Skonstruował specjalny aparat do ich odlewania, w którym nowością było używanie wymiennych matryc. Zaprojektował również własną wersję prasy drukarskiej na wzór znanych już pras introligatorskich.
W 1448 r. założył w Moguncji drukarnię. W 1455 r. ukazała się drukiem tzw. Biblia Gutenberga, której jeden egzemplarz można oglądać w muzeum diecezjalnym w Pelplinie. W 1457 r. Gutenberg wydał Psałterz moguncki oraz duży katechizm.
Zmarł w biedzie.
Wkład w historię druku
Biblia Gutenberga z 1455 rokuPotocznie, ale niesłusznie jest uważany za wynalazcę ruchomej czcionki, której historia sięga tysiąca lat wstecz na Dalekim Wschodzie. Niesłusznie uznaje się go również za pierwszego europejskiego drukarza. O wynalazku czcionki dowiedział się najprawdopodobniej od niejakiego Faustusa, który uciekł z Harlemu do Moguncji kradnąc wynalazek swojemu pracodawcy, Holendrowi Laurensowi Costerowi
Jego faktycznym dokonaniem było wydrukowanie w Europie pierwszego prawdziwie dużego wydawnictwa książkowego. Do tamtej pory drukowano tylko pojedyncze karty zawierające skomplikowane zdobienia, przeznaczone do dalszego wypełnienia pismem ręcznym, oraz niewielkie akcydensy.
Inne ważne osiągnięcia Gutenberga to udany projekt modyfikacji dotychczasowego gotyckiego kroju pisma ręcznego, a przede wszystkim stworzenia podstawowych zasad składu tekstu, z których korzysta większość zawodowych typografów, jak i projektanci oprogramowania dla DTP.[potrzebne źródło]
Za wynalezienie druku uważa się przede wszystkim rok 1440. Pierwszymi księgami jakie Gutenberg wydrukował były: Biblia oraz Księga Wszelkiej Mądrości.
Ciekawostki
Postać Jana Gutenberga pojawia się epizodycznie w powieści Andrzeja Sapkowskiego Narrenturm (rozdział piętnasty). Sapkowski opisuje pobyt młodego Gutenberga w Świdnicy.
Stocks Slammed by Bad Credit Fears
Stocks Slammed by Bad Credit FearsFriday January 11, 6:08 pm ET By Tim Paradis, AP Business Writer
Stocks Fall Sharply Amid Worries Over Investment Bank Writedowns, Anxiety About Earnings
NEW YORK (AP) -- Wall Street plunged again Friday amid renewed fears that the financial sector's troubles with bad credit won't soon end and that some consumers are buckling under the weight of a slowing economy. The major indexes each lost more than 1 percent, including the Dow Jones industrials, which finished down nearly 250 points.
The arrival of quarterly earnings reports has investors worried about how banks and brokerages have fared after suffering losses in the collapse of the subprime mortgage market. Traders appeared to grow more pessimistic ahead of reports due next week from the nation's biggest financial institutions. Merrill Lynch & Co., Citigroup Inc. and JPMorgan Chase & Co. are slated to weigh in next week.
Adding to investors' unease, Merrill Lynch might take a $15 billion hit from its exposure to soured subprime mortgage investments, according to The New York Times. The nation's largest brokerage is also said to be seeking another capital infusion to help shore up its balance sheet.
Investors also grew nervous after American Express Corp. warned that slower spending and more delinquencies on credit card payments will hamper profit throughout 2008. A profit warning from Tiffany & Co. added to Wall Street's unease about the fortitude of the consumer.
"When Amex comes out and says that some of their well-to-do cardholders are having problems making payments that's just not good news," said Brandon Thomas, chief investment officer of Portfolio Management Consultants, the investment arm of Envestnet Asset Management.
Friday's session revealed the extent of misgivings about Wall Street's efforts to sew up its troubles. Bank of America Corp. agreed Friday to buy Countrywide Financial Corp. for $4 billion, a deal that rescues the country's largest mortgage lender but pays less than the company's market value.
The agreement comes after word of the move Thursday and just months after BofA invested $2 billion in Countrywide. Some investors apparently hoped Countrywide would fetch a premium, though some observers said a tie-up was a better alternative than bankruptcy, rumors of which dogged the company during the week.
Michael Church, portfolio manager at Church Capital Management, said news from the financials is weighing on Wall Street, although he said investors shouldn't be surprised by the extent of the troubles.
"The financials are going to continue to be a problem," he said.
The Dow fell 246.79, or 1.92 percent, to 12,606.30. The Dow had been down more than 300 points in the last hour.
Broader stock indicators also declined. The Standard & Poor's 500 index fell 19.31, or 1.36 percent, to 1,401.02, and the Nasdaq composite index fell 48.58, or 1.95 percent, to 2,439.94.
Stocks have skidded lower in the new year, with the Dow often falling by triple digits in a single session amid anxiety about a possible recession as well as the still-unfolding fallout from the mortgage crisis.
The Dow is down 4.96 percent for the year, the S&P is off 4.59 percent, and the Nasdaq has lost 8.01 percent.
"I think we're going to see this volatility at least through the end of the earnings season," Thomas said.
Bond prices rose as stocks retreated. The yield on the benchmark 10-year Treasury note, which moves opposite its price, fell to 3.79 percent late Friday from 3.88 percent late Thursday. The dollar was mixed against other major currencies, while gold prices rose to a fresh record.
Oil prices were pressured by gains for the dollar against the euro and pound. Crude oil is a dollar-denominated commodity and tends to decline in value when the dollar rises. This is because it takes less money to buy the same amount. A barrel of light, sweet crude for February settled down $1.02 at $92.69 on the New York Mercantile Exchange.
Washington Mutual Inc. jumped 53 cents, or 3.7 percent, to $14.69 after CNBC reported JPMorgan is in talks to acquire the nation's largest savings and loan. JPMorgan fell 47 cents to $40.86.
Bank of America fell 80 cents, or 2 percent, to $38.50, while Countrywide fell $1.42, or 18 percent, to $6.33.
American Express fell $4.92, or 10.1 percent, to $44 and was the biggest decliner among the 30 stocks that comprise the Dow industrials. McDonald's Corp., also part of the Dow, fell $3.85, or 6.6 percent, to $54.32 after a Friedman Billings Ramsay analyst expressed doubt about the company's future earnings.
Traders showed little reaction to a Commerce Department report that higher energy prices drove the nation's trade deficit in November to its highest level in more than a year. The government said the gap shot up 9.3 percent to $63.1 billion, the widest since September 2006 and up from $57.8 billion in October. Economists surveyed by Thomson/IFR Markets forecast a trade gap of $58.6 billion.
Separately, there was good news on inflation in December, when import prices were unchanged, the Labor Department said.
Federal Reserve Governor Frederic Mishkin said the Fed will act decisively to counter risks to the economy and added that swift rate cuts can hasten the economy's return to normal. But Mishkin also said the financial markets are overly focused on the central bank's actions.
Boston Fed President Eric Rosengren said housing price declines could accelerate this year if the economy is not strong. Mishkin and Rosengren followed Fed Chairman Ben Bernanke, who on Thursday made clear in a speech that the central bank is poised to cut interest rates later this month.
Declining issues outnumbered advancers by about 2 to 1 on the New York Stock Exchange, where consolidated volume came to 4.3 billion shares, compared with 5.03 billion traded Thursday.
The Russell 2000 index of smaller companies fell 15.56, or 2.16 percent, to 704.65.
Overseas, Japan's Nikkei stock average closed down 1.93 percent. Britain's FTSE 100 closed down 0.33 percent, Germany's DAX index rose 0.06 percent, and France's CAC-40 fell 0.54.
The Dow Jones industrial average ended the week down 193.88, or 1.51 percent, at 12,606.30. The Standard & Poor's 500 index finished down 10.60, or 0.75 percent, at 1,401.02. The Nasdaq composite index ended down 64.71, or 2.58 percent, at 2,439.94.
The Russell 2000 index finished the week down 16.95, or 2.35 percent, at 704.65.
The Dow Jones Wilshire 5000 Composite Index -- a free-float weighted index that measures 5,000 U.S. based companies -- ended Friday at 14,042.54, down 168.30 points, or 1.18 percent, for the week. A year ago, the index was at 14,350.24.
New York Stock Exchange: http://www.nyse.com
Nasdaq Stock Market: http://www.nasdaq.com
Stocks Fall Sharply Amid Worries Over Investment Bank Writedowns, Anxiety About Earnings
NEW YORK (AP) -- Wall Street plunged again Friday amid renewed fears that the financial sector's troubles with bad credit won't soon end and that some consumers are buckling under the weight of a slowing economy. The major indexes each lost more than 1 percent, including the Dow Jones industrials, which finished down nearly 250 points.
The arrival of quarterly earnings reports has investors worried about how banks and brokerages have fared after suffering losses in the collapse of the subprime mortgage market. Traders appeared to grow more pessimistic ahead of reports due next week from the nation's biggest financial institutions. Merrill Lynch & Co., Citigroup Inc. and JPMorgan Chase & Co. are slated to weigh in next week.
Adding to investors' unease, Merrill Lynch might take a $15 billion hit from its exposure to soured subprime mortgage investments, according to The New York Times. The nation's largest brokerage is also said to be seeking another capital infusion to help shore up its balance sheet.
Investors also grew nervous after American Express Corp. warned that slower spending and more delinquencies on credit card payments will hamper profit throughout 2008. A profit warning from Tiffany & Co. added to Wall Street's unease about the fortitude of the consumer.
"When Amex comes out and says that some of their well-to-do cardholders are having problems making payments that's just not good news," said Brandon Thomas, chief investment officer of Portfolio Management Consultants, the investment arm of Envestnet Asset Management.
Friday's session revealed the extent of misgivings about Wall Street's efforts to sew up its troubles. Bank of America Corp. agreed Friday to buy Countrywide Financial Corp. for $4 billion, a deal that rescues the country's largest mortgage lender but pays less than the company's market value.
The agreement comes after word of the move Thursday and just months after BofA invested $2 billion in Countrywide. Some investors apparently hoped Countrywide would fetch a premium, though some observers said a tie-up was a better alternative than bankruptcy, rumors of which dogged the company during the week.
Michael Church, portfolio manager at Church Capital Management, said news from the financials is weighing on Wall Street, although he said investors shouldn't be surprised by the extent of the troubles.
"The financials are going to continue to be a problem," he said.
The Dow fell 246.79, or 1.92 percent, to 12,606.30. The Dow had been down more than 300 points in the last hour.
Broader stock indicators also declined. The Standard & Poor's 500 index fell 19.31, or 1.36 percent, to 1,401.02, and the Nasdaq composite index fell 48.58, or 1.95 percent, to 2,439.94.
Stocks have skidded lower in the new year, with the Dow often falling by triple digits in a single session amid anxiety about a possible recession as well as the still-unfolding fallout from the mortgage crisis.
The Dow is down 4.96 percent for the year, the S&P is off 4.59 percent, and the Nasdaq has lost 8.01 percent.
"I think we're going to see this volatility at least through the end of the earnings season," Thomas said.
Bond prices rose as stocks retreated. The yield on the benchmark 10-year Treasury note, which moves opposite its price, fell to 3.79 percent late Friday from 3.88 percent late Thursday. The dollar was mixed against other major currencies, while gold prices rose to a fresh record.
Oil prices were pressured by gains for the dollar against the euro and pound. Crude oil is a dollar-denominated commodity and tends to decline in value when the dollar rises. This is because it takes less money to buy the same amount. A barrel of light, sweet crude for February settled down $1.02 at $92.69 on the New York Mercantile Exchange.
Washington Mutual Inc. jumped 53 cents, or 3.7 percent, to $14.69 after CNBC reported JPMorgan is in talks to acquire the nation's largest savings and loan. JPMorgan fell 47 cents to $40.86.
Bank of America fell 80 cents, or 2 percent, to $38.50, while Countrywide fell $1.42, or 18 percent, to $6.33.
American Express fell $4.92, or 10.1 percent, to $44 and was the biggest decliner among the 30 stocks that comprise the Dow industrials. McDonald's Corp., also part of the Dow, fell $3.85, or 6.6 percent, to $54.32 after a Friedman Billings Ramsay analyst expressed doubt about the company's future earnings.
Traders showed little reaction to a Commerce Department report that higher energy prices drove the nation's trade deficit in November to its highest level in more than a year. The government said the gap shot up 9.3 percent to $63.1 billion, the widest since September 2006 and up from $57.8 billion in October. Economists surveyed by Thomson/IFR Markets forecast a trade gap of $58.6 billion.
Separately, there was good news on inflation in December, when import prices were unchanged, the Labor Department said.
Federal Reserve Governor Frederic Mishkin said the Fed will act decisively to counter risks to the economy and added that swift rate cuts can hasten the economy's return to normal. But Mishkin also said the financial markets are overly focused on the central bank's actions.
Boston Fed President Eric Rosengren said housing price declines could accelerate this year if the economy is not strong. Mishkin and Rosengren followed Fed Chairman Ben Bernanke, who on Thursday made clear in a speech that the central bank is poised to cut interest rates later this month.
Declining issues outnumbered advancers by about 2 to 1 on the New York Stock Exchange, where consolidated volume came to 4.3 billion shares, compared with 5.03 billion traded Thursday.
The Russell 2000 index of smaller companies fell 15.56, or 2.16 percent, to 704.65.
Overseas, Japan's Nikkei stock average closed down 1.93 percent. Britain's FTSE 100 closed down 0.33 percent, Germany's DAX index rose 0.06 percent, and France's CAC-40 fell 0.54.
The Dow Jones industrial average ended the week down 193.88, or 1.51 percent, at 12,606.30. The Standard & Poor's 500 index finished down 10.60, or 0.75 percent, at 1,401.02. The Nasdaq composite index ended down 64.71, or 2.58 percent, at 2,439.94.
The Russell 2000 index finished the week down 16.95, or 2.35 percent, at 704.65.
The Dow Jones Wilshire 5000 Composite Index -- a free-float weighted index that measures 5,000 U.S. based companies -- ended Friday at 14,042.54, down 168.30 points, or 1.18 percent, for the week. A year ago, the index was at 14,350.24.
New York Stock Exchange: http://www.nyse.com
Nasdaq Stock Market: http://www.nasdaq.com
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